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Twataligens yn de foarkoalske perioade

Foardielen twataligens

Twataligens is goed foar de kognitive, de taalkundige en de sosjale ûntwikkeling fan bern. Soks blykt bgl. út de ûndersiken fan Cummins, Mc McLeay, Keshavarz & Asteneh, Ianco-Worall, Bialystok en Price. Twatalige bern leare makliker in tredde of fjirde taal. Wat de kognitive ûntwikkeling oanbelanget, binne se bgl. faak better yn it skieden fan relevante en net-relevante ynformaasje.

Betingst dêrby is dat der sprake wêze moat fan lykweardige twataligens; bern moatte beide talen (like)goed behearskje, en se beide ek wurdearje (Seifert & Hoffnung 1994). Dêrby komt dat it nivo fan behearskjen fan de memmetaal sterk bepalend is foar it nivo fan behearskjen fan de twadde taal. Dit ferget ekstra omtinken yn twatalige sitewaasjes dêr’t sprake is fan in minderheids- en in mearderheidstaal, wêrby’t de minderheidstaal in legere status hat en minder brûkt wurdt yn bgl de media en it ûnderwiis (Duquette 1990, Gardner 1991).

De memmetaal fan bern dy't in minderheidstaal prate is ekstra kwetsber yn de VVE-perioade, wannear't de taalbasis oanlein wurdt en de taalidentiteit ûntwikkele wurdt (Cummins 2000).

 

Immersion < -- > submersion

Oer it generaal liede early immersion-programma's (mearderheidstaalsprekkers wurde yn de foarskoalse perioade ûnderdompele yn de minderheidstaal) ta goede resultaten yn de behearsking fan de thústaal én de twadde taal. De twadde taal wurdt boartsjendewei tafoege oan de thústaal, wylst de hege status en de dominante maatskiplike posysje fan de thústaal derfoar soarget dat de ûntwikkeling fan de thústaal net ûnderbrutsen wurdt (Swain 1981, Hicky 2001).

Early-submersion-programma's (minderheidstaalsprekkers wurde yn de foarskoalse perioade ûnderdompele yn de mearderheidstaal) hawwe dêrfoaroer faak in averjochts effekt. Dy programma's kinne de dochs al lege status fan de minderheidstaal fierder ferleegje, en dêrtroch de ûntwikkeling fan de memmetaal ûnderbrekke (Campos & Rosenberg 1995, Duquette 1990).

Dat ferklearret ek wêrom't foarskoalske programma's wêrby't minderheidstaalsprekkers folslein opheind en ûnderwiisd wurde yn de minderheidstaal, úteinlik ta bettere resultaten liede kinne yn de behearsking fan de mearderheidstaal as programma's wêrby't net of inkeld foar in part yn de minderheidstaal ûnderwiisd wurdt (Campos & Rosenberg). Fertaald nei Fryslân betsjut dat dat (goede) Frysktalige foarskoalse programma's foar Frysktalige bern úteinlik ta in bettere behearsking fan it Nederlânsk liede kinne as twatalige of Nederlânsktalige programma's.

 

Wat betsjut dat foar Frysktalige bern?

Troch de dominante posysje fan it Nederlânsk bestiet it risiko dat de ûntwikkeling fan de memmetaal ôfremme wurdt. Yn de foarskoalse perioade moat dêrom de klam lizze op it Frysk. In soad omtinken foar it Frysk yn de foarskoalse ynstelling sil bydrage oan de ferbreding fan de memmetaalbasis fan Frysktalige bern, en sil in positive ynfloed hawwe op harren attitude foar dy taal oer.

 

Wat betsjut dat foar Nederlânsktalige bern

Dy bern kinne profitearje fan de foardielen fan twataligens troch se op jonge leeftyd boartsjendewei yn kontakt te bringen mei de twadde taal. Om't it Nederlânsk de dominante taal is, en net allinne thús brûkt wurdt mar bgl. ek yn de media en it ûnderwiis, wurdt de ûntwikkeling fan dy taal net negatyf beynfloede.

 

Utgongspunten taalbelied foarskoalske perioade:

  • It kreëarjen fan in omjouwing dêr’t de taalûntwikkeling fan bern yn stimulearre wurdt
  • It útdragen fan de mearwearde fan twa- en meartaligens
  • It konsekwint brûken fan de beide talen (dat bern de talen sadwaande makliker skiede kinne)
  • It stimulearjen fan twataligens by alle bern troch yn de foar- en ierskoalske perioade goed omtinken te jaan oan de minderheidstaal
  • In goede ôfstimming tusken foarskoalske ynstelling en de basisskoalle, wêrby't it Frysk him fierder ûntwikkelje kin en der fanôf groep 1 ek dúdlik omtinken is foar it oanbod en it aktive gebrûk fan it Nederlânsk.

 

Maaie 2006, Eelke Goodijk (Cedin), Bernadet de Jager (Fryske Akademy), Sytske de Boer (Sintrum Frysktalige Berne-opfang)

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Dit artikel is spitigernôch (noch) net yn it Nederlânsk beskikber.

Jim Cummins, University of Toronto 
What We Know About Mother Tongue Development
The research is very clear about the importance of bilingual children's mother tongue for their overall personal and educational development. More detail on the research findings summarized below can be found in Baker (2000), Cummins (2000), and Skutnabb-Kangas (2000).
  1. Bilingualism has positive effects on children's linguistic and educational development1. When children continue to develop their abilities in two or more languages throughout their primary school years, they gain a deeper understanding of language and how to use it effectively. They have more practice in processing language, especially when they develop literacy in both, and they are able to compare and contrast the ways in which their two languages organize reality. More than 150 research studies conducted during the past 35 years strongly support what Goethe, the German philosopher, once said: The person who knows only one language does not truly know that language. The research suggests that bilingual children may also develop more flexibility in their thinking as a result of processing information through two different languages.
 
  1. The level of development of children's mother tongue is a strong predictor of their second language development2. Children's knowledge and skills transfer across languages from the mother tongue they have learned in the home to the school language. From the point of view of children's development of concepts and thinking skills, the two languages are interdependent. Transfer across languages can be two-way: when the mother tongue is promoted in school (e.g. in a bilingual education program), the concepts, language, and literacy skills that children are learning in the majority language can transfer to the home language. In short, both languages nurture each other when the educational environment permits children access to both languages
 
  1. Mother tongue promotion in the school helps develop not only the mother tongue but also children's abilities in the majority school language3. This finding is not surprising in view of the previous findings that (a) bilingualism confers linguistic advantages on children and (b) abilities in the two languages are significantly related or interdependent. Bilingual children perform better in school when the school effectively teaches the mother tongue and, where appropriate, develops literacy in that language. By contrast, when children are encouraged to reject their mother tongue and, consequently, its development stagnates, their personal and conceptual foundation for learning is undermined.
 
  1. Spending instructional time through a minority language in the school does not hurt children's academic development in the majority school language4. One of the most strongly established findings of educational research, conducted in many countries around the world, is that well-implemented bilingual programs can promote literacy and subject matter knowledge in a minority language without any negative effects on children's development in the majority language. Within Europe, the Foyer program in Belgium which develops children's speaking and literacy abilities in three languages (their mother tongue, Dutch and French) in the primary school most clearly illustrates the benefits of bilingual and trilingual education (see Cummins, 2000, pp. 218-219).
 
  1.  Children's mother tongues are fragile and easily lost in the early years of school5. Many people marvel at how quickly bilingual children seem to "pick up" conversational skills in the majority language in the early years at school (although it takes much longer for them to catch up to native speakers in academic language skills). However, educators are often much less aware about how quickly children can lose their ability to use their mother tongues, even in the home context. The extent and rapidity of language loss will vary according to the concentration of families from a particular linguistic group in the school and neighborhood. Where the mother tongue is used extensively in the community outside the school, then language loss among young children will be less. However, where language communities are not concentrated or "ghettoized" in particular neighborhoods, children can lose their ability to communicate in their mother tongue within 2-3 years of starting school. They may retain receptive (understanding) skills in the language but they will use the majority language in speaking with their peers and siblings and in responding to their parents.
To reduce the extent of language loss, parents should establish a strong home language policy and provide ample opportunities for children to expand the functions for which they use the mother tongue (e.g. reading and writing) and the contexts in which they can use it (e.g. community mother tongue day care or play groups, visits to the country of origin, etc.).
 
  1. To reject a child's language in the school is to reject the child6. When the message, implicit or explicit, communicated to children in the school is "Leave your language and culture at the schoolhouse door", children also leave a central part of who they are-their identities-at the schoolhouse door. When they feel this rejection, they are much less likely to participate actively and confidently in classroom instruction. It is not enough for teachers to passively accept children's linguistic and cultural diversity in the school. They must be proactive and take the initiative to affirm children's linguistic identity … and generally create an instructional climate where the linguistic and cultural experience of the whole child is actively accepted and validated.
 
References
Baker, C. (2000). A parents' and teachers' guide to bilingualism. 2nd Edition. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power, and pedagogy. Bilingual children in the crossfire. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2000). Linguistic genocide in education-or worldwide diversity and human rights? Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
 
1 Sjoch fierder bgl:
Lambert 1992
Lambert & others 1993
D. Myers, Psychology NY (1995), p.353
2 Sjoch fierder bgl:
Cummins, J., Harley, B., Swain., M, Allen , P. (1990). Social and individual factors in the development of bilingual proficiency. In B. Harley, P. Allen, J. Cummins & M. Swain (Eds) The development of second language proficiency. (p 199-133). Cambridge: Cambridge University press.
Gabina, J.J. et al. (1986) EIFE. Influence of factors on the learning of Basque. Gasteiz: Central Publications Service of the Basque Country.
Sierra, J. & Olaziregi, I. (1989) EIFE 2. Influence of factors on the learning of Basque. Gasteiz: Central Publications Service of the Basque Country.
3 Sjoch fierder bgl:
Landry & Allard, 1990
Campos, M.M., and Rosenberg, F. (1995), Our Day-Care Settings Respect Children: Quality Criteria for Day Care. ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED 394646.
Paul, B.B. & Jarvis, C.H. (1992), The Effects of Native Language Use in New York City Prekindergarten Classes. ERIC Document Reproduction Services. ED 351874
L. Verhoeven, “Detectie van taalachterstand” yn Bleichrodt, N. en Vijfer, F. van de (2001). Diagnostiek bij allochtonen, Amersfoort, pag 199-223.
4 Sjoch fierder bgl:
Romaine, S. (1995), Bilingualism, Oxford
Campos, M.M., and F. Rosenberg, 1995, Our Day-Care Settings Respect Children: Quality Criteria for Day Care. ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED 394646.
Cazabon, M.T., Nicoladis, E & Lambert, W.E.(1998), Becoming bilingual in the Amigos two-way immersion program, Washington.
Freeman, R.D. (1998), Bilingual education and social change, Clevedon.
Cummins, J., & Corson, D. (Eds) (1998), Bilingual education, Dordrecht.
Rosell, C.H. & baker, K. (1996). “The effectiveness of bilingual education”. Research in the Teaching of English, 30, pag 7-74.
5 Sjoch fierder bgl:
Kook, H. (1994), De ontwikkeling van het lezen en schrijven in een tweetalige context. Academisch proefschrift Universiteit van Amsterdam.
Verhoeven, L. (1993), “Literacy development in a multilingual context”. Yn: Eddring, L. & Leseman, P. (eds.) Early Intervention and Culture, Paris, UNESCO
6 Sjoch fierder bgl:
Skutnabb-Kangass (1984)
Fillmore, L. & Valadez, C. (1986). “Teaching bilingual learners. Yn Wittrock, M. (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching, New York, pag. 648-685).
Duquette 1990.